Researchers have collected venom from octopuses in Antarctica

Researchers have collected venom from octopuses in Antarctica for the first time, significantly advancing our understanding of the properties of venom as a potential resource for drug-development.

The study, conducted by an international team of researchers from the University of Melbourne, the Norwegian University of Technology and Science and the University of Hamburg, provides the first insight into the properties of Antarctic octopus venom. It has also revealed the existence of four new species of octopus.

Venom has long been recognised as a potentially valuable resource for drug development. However, scientists have only recently discovered the largely untapped resource cephalopods such as octopuses, cuttlefish and squid, possess in their unique venom properties - especially the species that live in sub-zero temperatures.

Team Leader, Dr Bryan Fry from the Bio21 Institute says it was a mystery how venomous animals have adapted their venom to have an effect even in sub-zero temperatures, where most venoms would normally lose their function.

"This is the first study that has collected Antarctic octopus venom and confirmed that these creatures have adapted it to work in sub zero temperatures - the next step is to work out what biochemical tricks they have used," he says.

Dr Fry says the venom analysis revealed that Antarctic octopus venom harbours a range of toxins, two of which had not previously been described.

"We have discovered new small proteins in the venom with very intriguing activities - these are potentially useful in drug design, but more will be revealed as the study continues," he says.

The study follows from Dr Fry's revelation last year that all octopuses are venomous. The team of scientists then embarked on a huge task to collect and study completely novel venoms to gain a greater understanding of how they work.

"An understanding of the structure and mode of action of venom found in all octopuses may help design drugs for conditions like pain management, allergies and cancer."

Through funding from the Australian Antarctic Division, the team collected 203 octopuses from Antarctic waters. They then genetically profiled each specimen to identify the species and collected venom to analyse in the lab.

"Not only do Antarctic octopuses have the most unique venoms out there, but there is a lot more species than we originally thought."

What Is DNA?

What Is DNA?
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is found in almost all the cells of our body.
Within those cells DNA is mostly housed in the nucleus, while a much
smaller amount of DNA can be found in mitochondria. DNA contains
the instructions (blueprints) for putting specific amino acids together to
make proteins. You see, the human body contains thousands of different
proteins, all of which our cells have to build using amino acids as the
building blocks. Without the DNA's instructions, our cells would not
know how to perform such a task.
  DNA is long and strand-like and organized into large structures called
chromosomes. Normally we have twenty-three pairs of chromosomes in
our nuclei. If we were to take a chromosome and find the end points of
the DNA, we could theoretically straighten it out like thread from a
spool. If we did so we would find thousands of small stretches called
genes on the DNA. We have thousands of genes, which contain the actual
instructions for building specific proteins.
   Human DNA contains around twenty-five thousand genes, which
   code for proteins. Each person has a unique gene profile.
  To oversimplify one of the most amazing events in nature, when a cell
wants to make a specific protein, it makes a copy of its DNA gene in the
form of RNA (ribonucleic acid). You see, DNA and RNA are virtually
the same thing. However, one of the most important differences is that the
RNA can leave the nucleus and travel to where proteins are made in
cells—the ribosomes . At this point both the blueprint
instructions (RNA) and the amino acids are available and it's the job of
the ribosomes to link (bond) amino acids together in the correct sequence.

What Do Cells Look Like?

What Do Cells Look Like?
Human cells can differ in size and function. Some are bigger and some
longer, some will make hormones while others will help our body move.
In fact, there are roughly two hundred different types of cells in our body.
Although these cells may seem unrelated, most of the general features will
be the same from one cell to the next. Therefore, we can discuss cells
by describing the features of a single cell. The unique characteristics of
different types of cells such red blood cells, muscle cells, and fat cells will
be described as they become relevant later in this chapter and book.
   Let's begin by examining the outer wall, or more scientifically the
plasma membrane of cells. As shown in Figure 2.1, the plasma membrane
separates the inside of the cell from the outside of the cell. The watery
environment inside the cell is called the intracellular fluid. Meanwhile, the
watery medium outside of cells is called the extracellular fluid. Previously,
it was noted that our body is about 60 percent water. Of this 60 percent,
roughly two-thirds of the water is intracellular fluid while the remaining
one-third is extracellular fluid, which would include the plasma of our
blood.